last updated 6/26/98

Allan Megill

This is a very slightly "processed" version of the syllabus of a course that I taught at the University of Virginia in spring semester 1998. I have taught the course quite regularly since 1976, when I first taught it at the University of Iowa, taking over from Professor William O. Aydelotte, whose valedictory course I had audited the previous year. Aydelotte was one of the first historians to engage in the systematic statistical examination of voting patterns. He had a fine sense of the limitations of an impressionistic approach to historical evidence. He became interested in philosophy of history because he believed that it was beneficial to think explicitly about problems of evidence, interpretation and the like, and he found help with these problems in the philosophy of history literature. The first few years that I taught the course, I did little more than survey the extant literature. But by the early to mid 1980s I found mself not only surveying the literature but also trying to make progress on the theoretical issues themselves. Note: When I next teach this class, an updated syllabus will appear somewhere on the UVa history department site (which is linked to this site): www.virginia.edu/~history.

Syllabus/Bibliography

Note that I customarily list far more reading than we shall actually do, since the syllabus is also intended to serve as a selective topical bibliography. Consider the syllabus a menu, from which we shall select a few things to consume. There will be a division of labor in this enterprise.

For anyone who wishes to go beyond this syllabus, a number of years ago I compiled a detailed annotated bibliography for the field, which I can supply to anyone who is interested. It is available in a WordPerfect 5.1 file. It is of course out of date, but provides fairly extensive coverage of the literature up to 1991.

The schedule is subject to change. There are in fact some elements that I intend to integrate into it that I have not yet done so in a fully adequate manner.

SESSION ONE: Monday, January 19, 1998 Introductory. "Philosophy of History" defined and discussed. Two basic meanings: (1) philosophy of the historical process itself (Hegel, Comte, Marx, et al); (2) philosophy of historical thinking and writing (Droysen, Croce, Collingwood, Veyne, Hayden White, et al). A third sense can also be suggested: (3) a reflective history of historical thinking and writing, focusing on the assumptions concerning the historical process, and concerning historical thinking and writing, implicit in any work of history.

I shall discuss some of the major themes to be covered in this class. One such theme is the notion of a "universal history" or "grand narrative," which, I claim, has been deepely involved with Western historiography. I may well discuss a number of the major schools or tendencies in the philosophy of historical thinking and writing (a field that I prefer to designate as "historiology"). I may well also discuss the relations between memory, subjectivity, and evidence, since it is a topic on which I am working at the moment.

I shall also go over course requirements generally. For each session, two "reporters" will be appointed, whose task it will be to write up accounts of the discussion (first and second half of the class) and put these on the course email network by the following Friday.

Reading (as commentary on Session One):

Allan Megill, entries for the Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing (forthcoming, 1998), on "Philosophy of History" and "Universal History" (these are included in the class packet for HIST 506, not yet available; in the meantime I shall place copies in the box for HIST 506 in the student room in Randall Hall--these are short pieces; read them there).

SESSION TWO: January 26, 1998: ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHICAL/CRITICAL HISTORY. Here we shall consider the conception of the historical world prevalent in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment. The topic is vast and we shall only be able to touch its surface. The basic argument that I shall advance is that, strictly speaking, the Enlightenment had little or no conception of a coherent, rationally-explicable historical process. Hence it did not have philosophy of history in sense (1). There did exist a conception of the universal history of humankind, but this had a chiefly theological foundation. There also existed the conception that history is "philosophy teaching by example," but this "exemplar" view did not imply any coherence of the historical process: its strategy was to extract meaningful "bits" from a history that was seen as only intermittently meaningful.

Reading: The reading will be selected from the following, which will serve as a mini-bibliography for the topic:

Brief treatments of "philosophical history":

Leonard Krieger, Kings and Philosophers, 1689-1789 (New York: Norton, 1970: D288.K7), "Philosophical History," 204-7. Willson H. Coates, J. Salwyn Schapiro, and Hayden V. White, The Emergence of Liberal Humanism, An Intellectual History of Western Europe, 2 vols. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966-70: B821.C62 1966), 1: 168-70, 194-96.

Longer general treatments of "philosophical history":

Benedetto Croce, History: Its Theory and Practice (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1921: D13.C713 1921), Part II, chapter 5, "The Historiography of the Enlightenment," 243-63.

R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (1946), rev. edition with Lectures 1926-1928, ed. with an introduction by Jan Van der Dussen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993: D16.8.C592 1993, on reserve), 76-85.

Carl Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Centjry Philosophers (New Haven: Yale University Press, [1932], 1964: B802.B4), "The New History," 71-118;

Croce, Collingwood, and Becker to be contrasted with:

Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960: B802.C33 1960), "TheConquest of the Historical World," 197-233; Peter Gay, The Bridge of Criticism (New York: Harper & Row, 1970: B802.G28 1970), "On History," 29-63; and Wilhelm Dilthey, "The Eighteenth Century and the Historical World," in Historians at Work, Vol. 4, eds. Peter Gay andVictor Wexler (New York: Harper & Row, 1972: D5.G35 1972 v. 4), 6-33.

"Exemplar" historiography:

George H. Nadel, "Philosophy of History Before Historicism," History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 3 (1963): 291-315; also available in The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy, ed. Mario Bunge (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1964: B29.B87), 445-70.

Henry St. John, Lord Bolingbroke, Historical Writings, ed Isaac Kramnick (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1972: DA40.B58 1972).

History in fragments/critical history:

Pierre Bayle, Historical and Critical Dictionary: Selections, ed. Richard Popkin (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1965: CT95.B33 1965), especially "Pyrrho" and "Acindynus."

"Providential" historiography (against which Enlighteners reacted):

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, Discourse on Universal History, ed. Orest Ranum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976: D21.B74513 1976).

Allan Megill, "Universal History," Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, forthcoming.

Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 2nd ed., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994: D13.B686 1994), "Universal History: A Troubled Tradition," 177-85.

Philosophical History:

J. B. Black, The Art of History: A Study of Four Great Historians of the Eighteenth Century (London: Methuen, 1926: D13.B55 1926). Essays on Voltaire, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. An old book.

History and Theory (D16.8.H52) Beiheft 11 (1972). Contains three essays on philosophical history; see especially Guenther Pflueg, "The Development of Historical Method in the Eighteenth Century," 1-23.

Voltaire

"The New Philosophical History: Voltaire," in Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973, on reserve), 1-45.

J. H. Brumfitt, Voltaire Historian (London: Oxford University Press, 1958: D15.V6B7 1958).

Voltaire, Oeuvres historiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1957: D7.V6 1956).

Karl J. Weintraub, Visions of Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966: D16.8.W387).

Fran‡ois Marie Arouet de Voltaire, The Philosophy of History, with a Preface by Thomas Kiernan (London: Vision, 1965:

D16.7.V933 1965); La Philosophie de l'histoire, ed. J. H. Brumfitt, 2nd ed., rev., in Voltaire, Complete Works, ed. Theodore Besterman, vol. 59, (Geneva: Institut et Mus‚e Voltaire, [orig. 1765], 1969: PQ2070 1968). Has a useful introduction in English.

Hume

David Hume, David Hume, Philosophical Historian (D13.H85) [NOT IN UVa LIBRARIES]

Robertson

William Robertson, The History of Scotland (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1829: DA785.R6 1829), Book I, the first few pages.

William Robertson, The History of the Reign of Charles the Fifth (Philadelphia: Printed for the subscribers by R. Bell, 1770: DD179.R6 1770), "Preface" and "A View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire...."

Gibbon

Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, an abridgment by D. M. Low (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960: DG311.G423). Try chapters 1, 2, 3, 15, 16, 38.

David. P. Jordan, Gibbon and His Roman Empire (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971: DG311.G6J67).

G. W. Bowersock, John Clive, and Stephen Graubard, eds., Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977: DG206.G5E37 1977), but see the review by E. Badian, "Imposing Gibbon," New York Review of Books (Z1219.N385) October 13, 1977, 7+.

Peter Gay, "Gibbon: A Modern Cynic Among Ancient Politicians," in Gay, Style in History, (New York: Basic, 1974: D14.G37), 19-56.

Arnaldo Momigliano, "Gibbon's Contribution to Historical method," in Momigliano, Studies in Historiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1966: D13.M64 1966), 40-55.

Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973: D13.W565, on reserve), chapter 1, "The Historical Imagination Between Metaphor and Irony," 45-80. An attempt to deal with the differences between Enlightenment historiography, Herder, and Romanticism and Idealism, while addressing the transitions from one to the next.

SESSION THREE: February 2, 1998: FROM CONTEXTUAL EVALUATION TO ORGANIC AND DIALECTICAL DEVELOPMENT: In this session we shall explore the transition, marked out most obviously by Johann Gottfried Herder and G. W. F. Hegel, from the dominant Enlightenment conception of history, in which historical flux and diversity are subordinated to universal standards, to the view that each age should be judged "in its own terms," and to the further view that history constitutes an organic or dialectical process running from age to age.

(a) The "historist" strand in eighteenth-century historical thought:

Johann Gottfried von Herder, On Social and Political Culture, trans. F. M. Barnard (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969: D16.7.H45 1969, on reserve), especially 33-69 (part of Barnard's introduction), 181-88 (first section, abridged, of Yet Another Philosophy of History), 282-84, 311-14 (fragments from Ideas for a Philosophy of the History of Mankind). (The Ideen is fairly extensively excerpted here.)

Johann Gottfried von Herder, Reflections on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind, abridged and with an Introduction by Frank E. Manuel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, [orig. 1784-91], 1968: D16.8.H4593 1968).

Leonard Krieger, Kings and Philosophers, (D288.K7), 228-237. On the "pre-romantic" context within which "historism" first became influential.

Wilson Havelock Coates, Hayden V. White, and Jacob Salwyn Shapiro, The Emergence of Liberal Humanism: An Intellectual History of Western Europe, 2 vols. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966-70: B821.C62), 196-201.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13.W565 1975), 69-80 ("Herder's Rebellion Against Enlightenment Historiography," "Herder's Idea of History," "From Herder to Romanticism and Idealism").

Allan Megill, "Aesthetic Theory and Historical Consciousness in the Eighteenth Century," History and Theory (D 16.8.H52) 17 (1978): 29-62.

Friedrich Meinecke, Historism: The Rise of a New Historical Outlook, trans. J. E. Anderson (New York: Herder and Herder, 1972: D16.8.M4613 1972). Wrong in its basic argument, but contains much salvageable material.

Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (London: Chatto & Windus, [1976], 1980: B3583.B46 1980).

Arthur O. Lovejoy, "Herder and the Enlightenment Philosophy of History," in Lovejoy, Essays in the History of Ideas (New York: George Braziller, 1955: B945.L583E7 1955), 166-82.

G. A. Wells, "Herder's Two Philosophies of History," Journal of the History of Ideas (B1.J75) 24 (1960): 527-37.

F. M. Barnard, "Herder's Treatment of Causation and Continuity in History," Journal of the History of Ideas (B1.J75) 24 (1963): 197-212.

J. L. Talmon, "Herder and the German Mind," in Talmon, The Unique and the Universal (New York: G. Braziller, 1966: AC8.T17 1966), 91-118.

F. M. Barnard, Herder's Social and Political Thought; From Enlightenment to Nationalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965: PT2354.B3 1965), especially chapter 6, "History and Social Development," 109-27.

F. M. Barnard, "Natural Growth and Purposive Development: Vico and Herder," History and Theory (D 16.8.H52) 18 (1979): 16-36.

Giambattista Vico, The New Science of Giambattista Vico, translation from the Third Edition (1744) by Thomas Goddard Bergin and Max Harold Fisch (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1948: B3581.P73E43 1948). A complex and diffuse work; try especially Book Two, on "The Discovery of the True Homer."

Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, ed. Franz Neumann, trans. Thomas Nugent (New York: Hafner, [1949], 1975: JC179.M74 1949). See especially Books III-X, XIX.

(b) the emergence of notions of development :

. M. Barnard, "Natural Growth and Purposive Development: Vico and Herder," History and Theory (D 16.8.H52) 18 (1979): 16-36.

Maurice Mandelbaum, History, Man, and Reason: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973: B803.M34, on reserve), Part II: "Historicism," 39-138. Concentrate especially on the section on the sources of "historicism" (a better term would be "embedded progress").

Pietro Rossi, "The Ideological Valences of Twentieth-Century Historicism," History and Theory (D16.8.H52) Beiheft 14 (1975): 15-29.

Walter Kaufmann, ed., Hegel: Texts and Commentary (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1966: B2928.E5 K3). A translation of and commentary on the Preface to The Phenomenology of Spirit.

G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History (New York: Dover, 1956: D16.8.H46 1956). Hegel's summary account of political history.

G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, trans. E. S. Haldane and Frances H. Simson, 3 vols., (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955: B2936.E5H3 1955), vol. 1. I contend that the history of philosophy was Hegel's model for history generally.

Hegel's conception of the history of philosophy is set out in the Introduction to this work (there are two other editions of the Introduction, which I understand are better than the version here).

G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History: Introduction: Reason in History, trans. H. B. Nisbet from the German edition of Johannes Hoffmeister, intro. Duncan Forbes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975: D16.8 H464 1975, on reserve). Mainly of interest for its account of historical writing, and hence we shall look at it in a latersession.

G. W. F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975: Clemons and Fine Arts Library: N64.H413 1975). Contains some important material on historiography.

G. W. F. Hegel, Introduction to the Lectures on the History of Philosophy, trans. T. M. Knox and A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985: B2936.E5K58 1985, on reserve), 1-23: Hegel's most rational history.

Joshua Foa Dienstag, "Dancing in Chains": Narrative and Memory in Political Theory (Stanford: Stanford University Press, forthcoming, 1997), chapter 5, "The Temple of Memory" (on Hegel's view of history), 141-77.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13 W565), chapter 2, "Hegel: The Poetics of History and the Way Beyond Irony," 81-131.

George Dennis O'Brien, Hegel on Reason and History: A Contemporary Interpretation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975: B2944.Z7O2 1975).

Burleigh Taylor Wilkins, Hegel's Philosophy of History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974: B2949.H5W54).

Keith, Michael Baker, Condorcet: From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975: H59.C66B34), especially chapter 6, "The Esquisse: History and Social Science," 343-82. Condorcet is an important figure in the transition to the notion of embedded progress in its Comtean version. Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, trans. June Barraclough with an introduction by Stuart Hampshire (New York: Noonday, 1955. [orig. 1795]).

Auguste Comte, Introduction to Positive Philosophy, ed., with an introduction and revised translation by, Frederick Ferr‚ (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970). This is the first two chapters of the following item.

Auguste Comte, The Positive Philosophy, trans. Harriet Martineau (New York: W. Gowans, 1868 [orig. 1830-42]: xxxx).

SESSION FOUR: Monday, February 9, 1998: THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF HISTORY, AND THE PRESUPPOSITIONS THEREOF. In this session, focusing on Leopold von Ranke, we shall explore the turning of history-writing into a professional, "scientific" discipline. We shall pay particular attention to the philosophical and ideological presuppositions (including considerations of gender, as articulated by Bonnie Smith in her article on the subject in American Historical Review (E 171.A57) 100 [October 1996]: 1150-76).

Allan Megill, "'Grand Narrative' and the Discipline of History," in A New Philosophy of History, eds. Frank Ankersmit and Hans Kellner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995: D16.8.N427 1995), 151-73, 263-71.

Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for 'Indian' Pasts?," Representations (CB475.R4) 37 (Winter 1992): 1-26.

Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History from Voltaire to the Present, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1973: D13.S82 1973, on reserve), selected items.

Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973: D13.W565, on reserve), chapter 1, "The Historical Imagination Between Metaphor and Irony," 45-80. Deals with the transition from Enlightenment historiography, to Herder, to Romanticism and Idealism.

Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973), the sections on Niebuhr and Ranke, 46-62, and the section, "History as an Academic Discipline," 170-177.

Leopold von Ranke, The Theory and Practice of History, ed. and trans. Georg G. Iggers and Konrad von Moltke (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973: D13.R32, on reserve), especially vii-lxxi, 33-59, 61-101, 135-38, 139-59, 160-64, 1-164, and 169-87 ("History of the Popes").

Georg G. Iggers, The German Conception of History: the National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present, 2nd. ed. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1983: DD86.I34 1983 [1968], on reserve), chaps. 1, 2, 3, pp. 1-89. A first-rate discussion.

Bonnie G. Smith, "Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar and Archival Research in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review (E 171.A57) 100 (October 1995): 1150-76.

Peter Gay, "Ranke: The Respectful Critic" in Gay, Style in History (D14.G37), 57-94.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13.W565), chap. 4, "Ranke: Historical Realism as Comedy," 163-90.

Stephen Bann, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984: D13.5.G7B36 1984). Discusses Ranke's dictum about describing the past "wie es eigentlich gewesen."

Felix Gilbert, "What Ranke Meant," American Scholar (AP2.A4572) 56 (1987): 393-397 (on the phrase "wie es eigentlich gewesen," into which Gilbert thought too much was being read). Now taken up in Felix Gilbert, History: Politics or Culture?: Reflections on Ranke and Burckhardt (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990: D16.8.G532 1990).

Friedrich Meinecke, "Ranke and Burckhardt" in Hans Kohn, ed., German History: Some New German Views (Boston: Beacon Press, 1954: DD93.K6), 141-156.

Peter Geyl, "Ranke in the Light of the Catastrophe" in Geyl, Debates with Historians (New York: Meridian Books, [1958], 1966: D16.8.G435 1958), 1-18.

Leonard Krieger, Ranke: The Meaning of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977: D15.R3K74).

Leonard Krieger, Time's Reason's: Philosophies of History Old and New (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989: D13.K7 1989), 97-104.

There is also an extensive literature, most of it in German, by Jörn Rüsen and his collaborators, as well as by other scholars, on the history of German historiography: see Allan Megill, "Jörn Rüsen's Theory of Historiography between Modernism and Rhetoric of Inquiry," History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 33 (1994): 39-60 for one point of access to this literature.

An important aim will be to get a "feel" for the character of Rankean narrative. How does Ranke attain narrative continuity? To what extent is the narrative ordered in a temporally sequential way (this happened and then this happened and then this happened . . .)? To what extent does Ranke allow himself to enter into the narrative? How much explicit explanation is there? To what extent do counterfactuals make their appearance? And so on.

Elaborations

Peter Gay, "Ranke: The Respectful Critic" in Gay, Style in History (D14.G37), 57-94.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13.W565), chap. 4, "Ranke: Historical Realism as Comedy," 163-190.

Stephen Bann, The Clothing of Clio (D13.5.G7B36 1984). Discusses Ranke's dictum; cf. Felix Gilbert, above.

SESSION FIVE: Monday, February 16, 1998: DEVELOPMENTS OF AND REACTIONS AGAINST THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF HISTORY: Droysen, Buckle, Burckhardt, Nietzsche. This topic area is very large, and we shall be able to cover only a small part of it. I propose that this year we read Droysen seriously. We shall also want to look at some of the items in Fritz Stern, The Varieties of History. Because one can only read so much, we shall leave aside Nietzsche's well known 1874 essay, "On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life."

Johann Gustav Droysen, Outline of the Principles of History, with a biographical sketch of the author, trans. Elisha Benjamin Andrews (Boston: Ginn, 1893: D16.D79 1893; in class packet).

Michael J. MacLean, "Johann Gustav Droysen and the Development of Historical Hermeneutics," History and Theory 21 (1982): 347-65.

Friedrich Nietzsche, "On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life," in Nietzsche, Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale, with an introduction by J. P. Stern (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983 : B3313.U52E5 1983), 57-123. Also available as a separately published essay in a number of other editions.

Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy, trans. Walter Kaufmann, in Nietzsche, Basic Writings (New York: Modern Library, 1968: B3312.E5K3), especially section 23; also available The Birth of Tragedy, and The Case of Wagner, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1967: B3313.G42E55).

Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (New York: Harper & Row, [1958], 1975: DG533.B85 1975).

Other Relevant Literature:

Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973), the section on "History as an Academic Discipline," 170-77; Lord Action's letter to the contributors to the Cambridge Modern History, 246-49; J. B. Bury, "Inaugural Lecture," 209-23; also selection from Henry Thomas Buckle.

Lord Acton, "Inaugural Lecture on the Study of History," in Acton, Essays in the Liberal Interpretation of History: Selected Papers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967: D7.A18 1967), 300-59. Charles-Victor Langlois and Charles Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of History (New York: Holt, 1913: D16.L29 1913).

Carl E. Pletsch, "History and Friedrich Nietzsche's Philosophy of Time," History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 16 (1977): 30-39.

Allan Megill, "Historicizing Nietzsche? Paradoxes and Lessons of a Hard Case, Journal of Modern History (D1.J62) 68 (March 1996): 114-52.

Wolfgang Hardtwig, "Geschichtsreligion--Wissenschaft als Arbeit--Objektivität: Der Historismus in neuer Sicht," Historische Zeitschrift (XXXXXXX) 252 (1991): 1-32.

Jacob Burckhardt, Force and Freedom (New York: Meridian Books, [1943], 1955: D16.8.B812 1955).

Jacob Burckhardt, Judgments on History and Historians, trans. Harry Zohn, intro. H. R. Trevor-Roper (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958: D21.B973 1958).

Karl J. Weintraub, Visions of Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966: D16.8.W387), 115-60 (on Burckhardt).

Friedrich Meinecke, "Ranke and Burckhardt" in Hans Kohn, ed., German History: Some New German Views (Boston: Beacon Press, 1954: DD93.K6), 141-156.

Peter Gay, "Burckhardt's Renaissance: Between Responsibility and Power," in The Responsibility of Power: Historical Essays in Honor of Hajo Holborn, eds. Leonard Krieger and Fritz Stern, (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, [1967], 1969: D210 R43 1969), 183-98.

Peter Gay, "Burckhardt: the Poet of Truth," in Gay, Style in History (D14 G37), 139-82.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13 W565), chapter 9, "Nietzsche: The Poetic Defense of History in the Metaphorical Mode," 331-74.

Jörn Rsüen , "Jacob Burckhardt: Political Standpoint and Historical Insight on the Border of Postmodernism," History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 24 (1985): 235-46.

SESSION SIX: Monday, February 23, 1998: THE "CRISIS OF HISTORICISM." We shall glance, here, the literature of the period 1880-1930 dealing with the relation between history and other fields, and with history's relation to value and to truth. The important figures are Windelband and Heidegger, and the important commentaries the ones by Iggers and by Bambach.

Wilhelm Windelband, "History and Natural Science," trans. Guy Oakes, History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 19 (1980): 165-85.

Heinrich Rickert, Science and History: A Critique of Positivist Epistemology, trans. George Reisman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962: Q175.R463 1962).

Wilhelm Dilthey, "The Dream," in The Philosophy of History in Our Time, ed. Hans Meyerhoff (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959: D16.8.M63, on reserve), 36-43.

Friedrich Meinecke, "Valus and Causality in History," in Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13 S82 1973), 267-88.

Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York: Harper & Row, 1962: B3279.H48S413), Division Two, chapter V, "Temporality and Historicality" (sections 72-77), 424-55.

Heinrich Rickert, The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science: A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences, trans. Guy Oakes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986: D16.8.R53213 1986).

Wilhelm Dilthey, Pattern and Meaning in History: Thoughts on History and Society, ed. H. P. Rickman (New York: Harper & Row, 1962: XXXXXXX [not in UVa Libraries]).

Wilhelm Dilthey, Selected Writings, ed. H. P. Rickman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976: B3216.D82E5713).

Wilhelm Dilthey, Introduction to the Human Sciences, ed. Rudolf Makkreel and Frithjof Rodi (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989: B3216.D82E5 1985 v. 1).

Georg G. Iggers, The German Conception of History (DD86 I34), especially chapters 5 and 6 (on the "crisis of historicism").

Charles R. Bambach, Heidegger, Dilthey, and the Crisis of Historicism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995: B3184.5 B35 1995).

Allan Megill, "Why was there a Crisis of Historicism?" [on Bambach, Heidegger, Dilthey, and the Crisis of Historicism), History and Theory 36 (1997): 416-29 (in class packet).

At this point in the course we shall pretty much abandon a chronological mode of organization for one that is more topical and theoretical.

SESSION SEVEN: Monday, March 3, 1997: TRUTH, ETHICS, EVIDENCE. I am tired of the now rather tiresome discussion of objectivity in history, but not yet tired of the question of evidence, on which we shall focus in this session.

Allan Megill, One or more draft papers not for circulation beyond this class.

Allen Johnson, The Historian and Historical Evidence (New York: Scribner's, 1926) (substantial selections in class packet).

Carlo Ginzburg, Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method, trans. John and Anne C. Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989: D16.G5213 1989), especially "Clues: Roots of an Evidential Paradigm," 96-125, "From Aby Warburg to E. H. Gombrich: A Problem of Method," 17-59, and "The Inquisitor as Anthropologist," 156-64.

Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995: RC569.5.M8H33 1995), chapters 6, 8, 17, and 18 (on Cause, Truth in Memory, An Indeterminacy in the Past, and False Consciousness).

Nicholas P. Spanos, Multiple Identities and False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1996: RC455.2.F35S67 1996), Part II, "Creating False Memories," 57-227.

Terry Castle, "Contagious Folly: An Adventure and Its Skeptics," in James

Chandler, Arnold I. Davidson, and Harry Harootunian, eds., Questions of Evidence: Proof, Practice, and Persuasion across the Disciplines (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994: BD181.Q47 1994), 1-42; Fran‡oise Meltzer, "For Your Eyes Only: Ghost Citing," 43-49; Terry Castle, "A Rejoinder to Fran‡oise Meltzer," 50-55.

Julie Bates Dock, with Daphne Ryan Allen, Jennifer Palais, and Kristen Tracy, "'But One Expects That': Charlotte Perkins Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper" and the Shifting Light of Scholarship," PMLA 111: 3 (January 1996): 52-65.

R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (1946), rev. edition, with Lectures 1926-1928, ed. with an introduction by Jan Van der Dussen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993: D16.8.C592 1993), relevant passages.

Allan Megill, "History and Literature," Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing (forthcoming, 1998; in class packet).

SPRING RECESS: SATURDAY, MARCH 7 -- SUNDAY, MARCH 15, 1998.

SESSION EIGHT: Monday, March 16, 1998: ANALYZING HISTORICAL THINKING AND WRITING. At this point we shall attempt to apply some theoretical categories to the analysis of specific historical works. There are many questions that can be raised under this heading. Literature for this and the following session includes works by Carrard, Chatman, Dray, Furet, Genette, Hempel, Lanham, Martin, Megill, Ricoeur, and Rosaldo, but we'll really only be able to scratch the surface, looking seriously at only a few items.

Allan Megill, "Recounting the Past: 'Description,' Explanation, and Narrative in Historiography," American Historical Review (E 171.A57) 94 (1989): 627-53.

Allan Megill and Donald [Deirdre] N. McCloskey, "The Rhetoric of History," in Nelson, Megill, and McCloskey, eds., The Rhetoric of the Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public Affairs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987: P301.R465 1987, on reserve), 221-238.

Allan Megill, "A Preliminary Schema for Reading Works of History" (class packet).

Allan Megill, "Summer 1988 draft pages on recounting and explanation." This is a version of material later included, in more condensed and difficult form, in "Recounting the Past."

David Hackett Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1970: D16.F53), Chapter IV, "Fallacies of Generalization," 103-130. In particular, unpack pp. 103-104.

William Dray, "'Explaining What' in History," in Gardiner, Theories of History (D16.8.G33 1960) 403-405 (CP).

Ramsay Muir, A Short History of the British Commonwealth, 8th ed., 2 vols. (London: George Philip & Son, 1954 [1922]: DA30.M85 1937), 2: 123.

Allan Megill, Review of Theodore S. Hamerow, Reflections on History and Historians, History and Theory (D16.8.H52) 27 (1988): 94-106.

Richard A. Lanham, Analyzing Prose (New York: Scribner's, 1983: PE1421.L295 1983), Chapter II, Parataxis and Hypotaxis," 33-52.

G. M. Trevelyan, "Clio, A Muse" (1903), in Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973), 267-88.

G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History: Introduction (D16.8.H46 1975). Classifies in an interesting way different types of historical works. Selected pages from various works of history (e.g., Tuchman, Shirer, Karnow, Stromquist, Hanley, Rebel, Bracher, Maier, Davis, Carlyle, Bloch, Braudel, Wells, Jackman, Boyer and Nissenbaum, Burns, Lerner, and Meacham, and Eley).

A GENERAL ASSIGNMENT (an assignment that may be due today): Pick a short passage from any work of history (an excerpt from the course packet would do in a pinch), and indicate, after you have looked through the two essays and the "Preliminary Schema," what, exactly, is going on in the passage. Bring four copies -- including copies of the analyzed text -- to class: two copies for the instructor, one for another class member.

SESSION NINE: March 23, 1998: QUESTIONS OF NARRATIVE AND INTERPRETATION. The general topic here will be the relation between the narrative dimension, so called, of historical writing and other aspects of historical works. What is "narrative"? How does "narrative" relate to "analysis"? How does it relate to the structural features of historical writing generally? At another level, narrative also relates to issues of "interpretation," which take us well out beyond the work itself or the past "itself."

Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, vol. 1, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984: PN212.R5213 v. 1), 89-230. Philosophy of historical writing since World War II.

Louis O. Mink, Historical Understanding, ed. Brian Fay, Eugene O. Golob, and Richard T. Vann (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), "Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument," 182-203.

Allan Megill, "Philosophy of Historical Writing/Historiology," in Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing (forthcoming, 1998; in class packet).

Allan Megill, "Recounting the Past: 'Description,' Explanation, and Narrative in Historiography," American Historical Review (E171.A57) 94 (1989): 627-53.

Hayden White, "The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality," in White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987: D13.W564 1987), 1-25.

Carl G. Hempel, "The Function of General Laws in History," in Patrick Gardiner, ed., Theories of History (New York: Free Press, 1960: D16.8.G33 1960), 344-356.

Arthur C. Danto, Narration and Knowledge, including the integral text of Analytical Philosophy of History (New York: Columbia University Press, [1965], 1985: D16.8.D23 1985), 155-159, 168-169 (against the Ideal Chronicler).

W. H. Dray, "Narrative Versus Analysis in History," in Joseph Margolis, Michael Krausz, and Richard M. Burian, eds., Rationality, Relativism and the Human Sciences (Dordrecht, Holland: Nijhoff, 1986: B29.R34 1986): 23-42. Franç:ois Furet, "From Narrative History to Problem-oriented History," in Furet, In the Workshop of History, trans. Jonathan Mandelbaum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984: D13.5.F8F8713 1984), 54-67.

Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995: RC569.5.M8H33 1995), chapter 17, "An Indeterminacy in the Past," 234-57.

Charles-Victor Langlois and Charles Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of History, trans. G. C. Berry (New York: Henry Holt, 1904: D16.L293).

Heinrich Rickert, Science and History: A Critique of Positivist Epistemology, trans. George Reisman (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1962: Q175.R463 1962).

Philippe Carrard, Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992: DC36.9.C38 1992), selected pages (mainly on "disposition").

Richard A. Lanham, Analyzing Prose (New York: Scribner's, 1983: PE1421.L295 1983), "Introduction: The Domain of Style," 1-12, and Chapter I, "Noun and Verb Styles," 15-32.

Bear in mind also, for this session, the "selected pages" and the "Preliminary Schema" from the previous session.

SESSION TEN: March 30, 1998: POINT OF VIEW AND ITS REPRESSION IN HISTORICAL WRITING: THE ROLE OF THE "GREAT STORY." The topic here, like several of the preceding ones, is potentially vast. In brief, however, the plan is to look at the relation between the historian's conception (articulated or unarticulated) of the status of his or her own point of view, and the character of the historical work that gets produced as a result.

J. B. Bury, "Inaugural Address" (1902), in Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973), 209-223.

Lord Acton, "Letter to the Contributors to the Cambridge Modern History (1898), in Stern, ed., The Varieties of History (D13.S82 1973), 246-249.

Herodotus, The History, selected pages.

Allan Megill, "'Grand Narrative' and the Discipline of History," in A New Philosophy of History, eds. Frank Ankersmit and Hans Kellner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995: D16.8.N427 1995), 151-73, 263-71.

Renato Rosaldo, "Where Objectivity Lies: The Rhetoric of Anthropology," in John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, and Donald N. McCloskey, eds., The Rhetoric of the Human Sciences (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987: P301.R465 1987), 87-110.

Allan Megill, "Four Senses of Objectivity," in Megill, ed., Rethinking Objectivity (Durham., N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994: BD220.R48 1994, on reserve), 1-20.

Michael Geyer and Charles Bright, "World History in a Global Age," American Historical Review (E171.A57) 100 (October 1995): 1034-60.

Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994: PN 761.H43 1994).

Arjun Appadurai, "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy," Public Culture (NX 180.S6 P813) 2 (1990): 1-24.

John R. Gillis, "Introduction: Memory and Identity: The History of a Relationship," in Commemoration, ed. Gillis (check title and data), 3-24 .

Carl G. Hempel, "The Function of General Laws in History," in Patrick Gardiner, ed., Theories of History (D16.8.G33 1960), 344-56.

Selected pages from some works of history.

Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, vol. 1, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984: PN212.R5213 v. 1), 97-98. Discusses Raymond Aron's attack on historical positivism, then goes on to sow confusion).

Leon J. Goldstein, "Impediments to Epistemology in the Philosophy of History,"History and Theory, Beiheft 25 ("Knowing and Telling History: The Anglo-Saxon Debate," ed. F. R. Ankersmit) (D16.8.K56 1986), (1986): 82-100. Note his criticism of Langlois and Seignobos.

Carl G. Hempel, "The Function of General Laws in History," in Patrick Gardiner, ed., Theories of History (D16.8.G33 1960), 344-56.

Arthur C, Danto, Narration and Knowledge, including the integral text of Analytical Philosophy of History (D16.8.D23 1985), 155-159, 168-69 (against the Ideal Chronicler).

Quentin Skinner, "Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas," History and Theory (D 16.8.H52) 8 (1969): 1-53, at 22-23, 28-29. How does his argument square with that of Danto (whom he cites). Why or why not?

Wallace Martin, Recent Theories of Narrative (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986: PN212.M37 1986), especially 130-51, on point of view.

Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin, Foreword by Jonathan Culler (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980: PQ2631.R63A791713), 10-11, 189-194 (on focalization, internal and external).

(Perhaps someone would be willing to read the first few pages of Henry James, The Ambassadors, to chart out James's camera positions.)

Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988: D13.5.U6N68 1988).

Note also the review article by James T. Kloppenberg, "Objectivity and Historicism: A Century of American Historical Writing," American Historical Review (E171.A57) 94 (1990): 1011-30; "AHR Forum: Peter Novick's That Noble Dream: The Objectivity Question and the American Historical Profession" (commentaries by Linda Gordon, J. H. Hexter, David Hollinger, Allan Megill, Peter Novick, and Dorothy Ross), American Historical Review (E 171.A57) 96 (1991), 675-708.

Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Continuum, 1975: BD241.G313), 235-274 ("The Elevation of the Historicality of Understanding to the Status of Hermeneutical Principle"). Difficult. (The more recent revised translation, by Joel Weinsheimer and Donald Marshall, is to be preferred somewhat to the older translation.)

Martin Heidegger, Being and Time (B3279.H48S413), 188-195 (Section 32: "Understanding and Interpretation"). Also difficult.

Omitted Session: RE-EXAMINING THE ANNALES SCHOOL. Relying on Philippe Carrard and on a number of other commentators, we shall look at the most influential twentieth-century school of historiography with an eye to the strategies actually pursued by these historians.

Philippe Carrard, Poetics of the New History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992: DC36.9.C38 1992).

Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft, trans. Peter Putnam, intro. Joseph R. Strayer (New York: Knopf, 1953: D13.B5613 1953).

R. R. Davies, "Marc Bloch," History (D1.H815) 52 (Oct 1967): 265-82.

Carole Fink, Marc Bloch: A Life in History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989: D15.B596F56 1989).

Fernand Braudel, "Personal Testimony," Journal of Modern History (D1.J62), 44 (1972): 448-67.

J. H. Hexter, "Fernand Braudel and the Monde braudellien ...," Journal of Modern History (D 1.J62), 44 (1972): 480-539.

Hans Kellner, [essay in] Kellner, Language and Historical Representation: Getting the Story Crooked (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989: P41.K4 1989).

H. Stuart Hughes, The Obstructed Path; French Social Thought in the Years of Desperation: 1930-1960 (New York: Harper & Row, 1968: DC365 H8 1968), chapter 2, "The Historians and the Social Order," 19-64.

Georg C. Iggers, New Directions in European Historiography (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1975: D13.I35).

William R. Keylor, Academy and Community: The Foundation of the French Historical Profession (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975: DC36.9 K49 1975).

Traian Stoianovich, French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976: DC36.9 S76 1976).

Peter Burke, The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989 (Cambridge: Polity, 1990: D13.5.F7B87 1990).

John Higham, with Leonard Krieger and Felix Gilbert, History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965: D13.H43).

Stephen Graubard, Felix Gilbert, eds., Historical Studies Today (New York: W.W. Norton, 1972: D16.G51972).

Michael J. Kammen, ed., The Past Before Us: Contemporary Historical Writing in the United States (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980: D13.P36).

SESSION ELEVEN: April 8, 1998: COLLINGWOOD'S VIEW OF HISTORY.

R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (1946), rev. edition, with Lectures 1926-1928, ed. with an introduction by Jan Van der Dussen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993: D16.8.C592 1993), "Epilegomena," pp. 231-315.

Jan Van der Dussen, "Collingwood's 'Lost' Manuscript of The Principles of History, H&T 36: 1 Feb 1997 32-62.

Louis O. Mink, "Collingwood's Historicism: A Dialectic of Process," and "Collingwood's Dialectic of History," in Louis O. Mink, Historical Understanding, ed. Brian Fay, Eugene O. Golob, and Richard T. Vann (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), 223-45, 246-85.

Paul Veyne, Writing History: Essay on Epistemology, trans. Mina Moore-Rinvolucri (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984: D16.V4613 1984), ix-x; 3-116. The translation is extremely problematic and so I have compiled a list of corrections. How does Veyne contrast with Collingwood?

Allan Megill, "Philosophy of Historical Writing/Historiology," in Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing (forthcoming, 1998; in class packet).

Allan Megill, "History, Memory, Identity" (draft paper).

The "idealist" theory of historiography beyond Collingwood: Benedetto Croce, trans. Douglas Ainslie, History: Its Theory and Practice (New York: Russell & Russell, 1960: D13.C7 1960).

Benedetto Croce, History as the Story of Liberty (London: G. Allen and Unwin limited, 1949: D13.C682 1949).Michael Oakeshott, Experience and Its Modes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985: B 105.E9 O25 1985).

Michael Oakeshott, "The Activity of Being a Historian," in Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1991: JA71.O24 1991).

Hayden White, "The Abiding Relevance of Croce's Idea of History," Journal of Modern History (D1.J62) 35 (1963): 109-24.

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13.W565) chapter 10: "Croce: The Philosophical Defense of History in the Ironic Mode," 375-25.

SESSION TWELVE: April 13, 1998: MICHEL DE CERTEAU. In many ways a foil to Collingwood.

Michel de Certeau, The Writing of History, trans. Tom Conley (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975: D13.C3413 1988).

A difficult, but very illuminating, theorist of history: I must confess that I first really discovered what he had to offer only last year.

Roger Chartier, On the Edgeof the Cliff, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), "Michel de Certeau: History, or Knowledge of the Other," 39-47.

SESSION THIRTEEN: April 20, 1998: HAYDEN WHITE.

Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987: D13.W564 1987; on reserve).

Another influential theorist: likewise, what can be learned from him?

Roger Chartier, On the Edgeof the Cliff, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), "History between Narrative and Knowledge," 13-27, and "Four Questions for Hayden White," 28-38.

Chris Lorenz, "Can Histories be True? Narrativism, Positivism and the 'Metaphorical Turn," 26 pp. unpublished (forthcoming, History and Theory

SESSION FOURTEEN: April 27, 1998: I shall leave this session unscheduled as to topic, at least for now. One possibility is a presentation by a visiting professor, no doubt displacing one of the earlier sessions.

An omitted topic: MARX:

Marx as philosopher of history:

Karl Marx, The German Ideology, Part One, in Marx, The Marx-Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (HX39.5.A224 1978 [see also, more briefly, *"Karl Marx on the History of His Opinions" (the "1859 Preface") at the beginning of Tucker's selections].

Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, trans. David Fernbach (New York: Vintage, 1981: HB501.M36 1977), chap. 32, "The Historical Tendency of Capitalist Accumulation," 927-930.

Marx as historian:

Karl Marx, The Class Struggles in France (DC272.5.M313).

Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (numerous editions; but see inter alia, Karl Marx, Surveys from Exile [D363.M37 1974], 143-249. (Read either "Class Struggles" or "Brumaire.")

Leonard Krieger, "Marx and Engels as Historians," Journal of the History of Ideas 14 (1953): 381-403.

Leonard Krieger, "Uses of Marx for History," Political Science Quarterly 75 (1960): 355-378.

Leonard Krieger, Time's Reasons, 68-84.

John Paul Riquelme, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Karl Marx as Symbolic Action," History and Theory (D1.H85) 19 (1980): 58-72.

Dominick LaCapra, "Reading Marx: The Case of The Eighteenth Brumaire," in LaCapra, Rethinking Intellectual History: Texts, Contexts, Language (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983: B29.L24 1983), 268-290.

Georg G. Iggers, New Directions in European Historiography (D13.I35), chap. IV, "Marxism and Modern Social History," 123-180 (especially 123-133, on Marx himself).

Howard R. Bernstein, "Marxist Historiography and the Methodology of Research Programs," History and Theory, Beiheft 20 (1981): 424-449.

Engels as historian:

Friedrich Engels, The German Revolutions, ed. Leonard Krieger (DD182.E513 1967).

Marx as both philosopher of history and historian:

Hayden White, Metahistory (D13.W565), chap. 8, "Marx: The Philosophical Defense of History in the Metonymical Mode," 281-330.

Walter L. Adamson, "Marx's Four Histories: An Approach to His Intellectual Development," History and Theory, Beiheft 20 (1981): 379-402. (See also, in greater detail, Adamson, Marx and the Disillusionment of Marxism (HX39.5.A522 1985).

G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (D16.9.C66).

William H. Shaw, Marx's Theory of History (D16.9.S46).

Walter L. Adamson, Review of Cohen, Shaw, and Rader books on Marx's philosophy of history, History and Theory (D1.H85) 19 (1980): 186-204.

Maurice Mandelbaum, History, Man, and Reason (B803.M36), especially 63-76.

Roy Enfield, "Marx and Historical Laws," History and Theory (D1.H85) 15 (1976): 267-277.

To what extent was Marx a historian? Insofar as he was a historian, what kind of historian was he? Does he fit our categories? What is he most interested in? What questions does he beg?